Abstract
In agriculture, soil amendments like compost, manure, superabsorbent polymers (SAP) and biochar (BC) are already in use to mitigate the effects of water shortage and to obtain a higher yield and survivability. The present study focuses on the impact of BC and SAP under moderate and reduced soil water content (SWC) on the physiological and biochemical response of Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5), a naturally drought-resistant and strategic crop in arid regions, with the aim of further improving its resilience and biomass production. Plants were grown in the presence or absence (control) of SAP (1% or 0.1% g/100 g SAP) or BC (3% g/100 g BC) by taking into account the smallest possible amount of irrigation necessary for optimal growth of the control. Sixty-five days after sowing, the reduced watering approaches started. The irrigation amount was reduced slowly until plants without any amendment showed a significant reduction in CO2/H2O gas exchange and further significant changes in 23 morphological, physiological and biochemical symptoms of water shortage. Each amendment already caused individual plant response in wet conditions: The soil amendments of SAP (1% and 0.1%) and BC had no significant effect on biomass production but caused changes in PS I (portion of oxidized and open centers in PS I), the C/N ratio and N content. The addition of SAP (0.1% and 1%) led to a decrease in gH+, ECStmAu × gH+, RD, RL, the Ci/Catm ratio and ETR/Agross ratio and to an increase in water use efficiency (WUE), especially in the 0.1% SAP treatment. In moderate conditions, 0.1% SAP and 3% BC caused a significant increase in both the LOP and C/N ratio. In the moderate treatments, the application of 0.1% SAP promoted an increased Anet, while 3% BC promoted a significant reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA). The results of the present quinoa experiment indicate the drought avoidance mechanism of the control under low SWC. The reduced transpiration led to increased WUE due to the efficient use of the substomatal CO2 reservoir under low Cs and low E. It could also be confirmed that quinoa plants balanced low soil water potential by the accumulation of compatible solutes to lower the LWP and LOP. Drought led, especially in leaves in the 1% SAP treatment, to significant reductions in CO2/H2O gas exchange (Anet, RD), decreases in Y (II) and ETR in PS II, and an increase in the ETR/A ratio and over-reduced centers in PS I, pointing to an increased appearance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the chloroplasts. The latter change was indicated by higher levels of lipid peroxidation (MDA). It could be shown that the response of the test species Chenopodium quinoa to the addition of BC and SAP proved to be highly adaptable. The plant reacted in a very coordinated and specific way to both the danger of oversupply of SAP soil amendments under water shortage conditions and an effective adaptation to a limited water supply with 3% BC and 0.1% SAP by increasing WUE and proline content. However, BC also had a mitigating effect on the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS). It can be assumed that this effect is based on a more plant-compatible, less one-sided ion composition of BC. The results presented indicate that SAP and BC can have an impact on the water and nutrient accessibility for plants. Therefore, optimal biomass production and plant response can only be reached if plant soil interactions and competition between SAP, BC and the plant roots are taken into account when planning for climate-resilient, water-saving agriculture.
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Claims 20
Claim · model-written summary
Reduced watering caused significant reductions in CO2/H2O gas exchange in unamended quinoa.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.
Chenopodium quinoat0 - Treatment
- irrigation amount was reduced slowlye0
- Outcome
- CO2/H2O gas exchangee0
- Direction
- reductione0
- Comparator
- without any amendmente0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The irrigation amount was reduced slowly until plants without any amendment showed a significant reduction in CO2/H2O gas exchange”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
SAP and biochar amendments had no significant effect on quinoa biomass under wet conditions.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- soil amendments of SAP (1% and 0.1%) and BCe0
- Outcome
- biomass productione0
- Direction
- no significant effecte0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The soil amendments of SAP (1% and 0.1%) and BC had no significant effect on biomass production”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
SAP and biochar changed PS I centers, C/N ratio and N content under wet conditions.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- SAP (1% and 0.1%) and BCe1
- Outcome
- PS I (portion of oxidized and open centers in PS I), the C/N ratio and N contente0
Not reportedComparatorDirection
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“caused changes in PS I (portion of oxidized and open centers in PS I), the C/N ratio and N content”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
e1“SAP (1% and 0.1%) and BC”
Claim · model-written summary
SAP decreased gH+, ECStmAu × gH+ and RD.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- SAP (0.1% and 1%)e0
- Outcome
- gH+, ECStmAu × gH+, RDe0
- Direction
- decreasee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The addition of SAP (0.1% and 1%) led to a decrease in gH+, ECStmAu × gH+, RD”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
SAP decreased RL, Ci/Catm and ETR/Agross ratios.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- SAP (0.1% and 1%)e1
- Outcome
- RL, the Ci/Catm ratio and ETR/Agross ratioe0
- Direction
- decreasee1
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“RL, the Ci/Catm ratio and ETR/Agross ratio and to an increase in water use efficiency”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
e1“The addition of SAP (0.1% and 1%) led to a decrease”
Claim · model-written summary
SAP increased quinoa water use efficiency, especially at 0.1%.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- 0.1% SAP treatmente0
- Outcome
- water use efficiency (WUE)e0
- Direction
- increasee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“an increase in water use efficiency (WUE), especially in the 0.1% SAP treatment”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
0.1% SAP increased LOP under moderate water conditions.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- 0.1% SAPe0
- Outcome
- LOPe0
- Direction
- increasee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In moderate conditions, 0.1% SAP and 3% BC caused a significant increase in both the LOP and C/N ratio”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
0.1% SAP increased C/N ratio under moderate water conditions.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- 0.1% SAPe0
- Outcome
- C/N ratioe0
- Direction
- increasee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In moderate conditions, 0.1% SAP and 3% BC caused a significant increase in both the LOP and C/N ratio”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
3% BC increased LOP under moderate water conditions.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- 3% BCe0
- Outcome
- LOPe0
- Direction
- increasee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In moderate conditions, 0.1% SAP and 3% BC caused a significant increase in both the LOP and C/N ratio”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
3% BC increased C/N ratio under moderate water conditions.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- 3% BCe0
- Outcome
- C/N ratioe0
- Direction
- increasee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In moderate conditions, 0.1% SAP and 3% BC caused a significant increase in both the LOP and C/N ratio”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
0.1% SAP increased Anet under moderate conditions.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- 0.1% SAPe0
- Outcome
- Anete0
- Direction
- increasede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“the application of 0.1% SAP promoted an increased Anet”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
3% biochar reduced MDA under moderate conditions.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- 3% BCe0
- Outcome
- malondialdehyde (MDA)e0
- Direction
- reductione0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“3% BC promoted a significant reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA)”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
Low soil water content led to reduced transpiration and increased water use efficiency.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Outcome
- WUEe0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Qualifier
- efficient use of the substomatal CO2 reservoir under low Cs and low Ee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The reduced transpiration led to increased WUE due to the efficient use of the substomatal CO2 reservoir under low Cs and low E”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
Quinoa accumulated compatible solutes to lower LWP and LOP at low soil water potential.
- Taxon
- quinoa plantsChenopodium quinoae0
- Outcome
- LWP and LOPe0
- Direction
- lowere0
- Qualifier
- accumulation of compatible solutese0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“quinoa plants balanced low soil water potential by the accumulation of compatible solutes to lower the LWP and LOP”
Claim · model-written summary
Drought reduced CO2/H2O gas exchange and PS II performance in leaves under 1% SAP.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Organ / stage
- leavese0
- Treatment
- Droughte0
- Outcome
- CO2/H2O gas exchange (Anet, RD), decreases in Y (II) and ETR in PS IIe0
- Direction
- reductionse0
- Qualifier
- 1% SAP treatmente0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Drought led, especially in leaves in the 1% SAP treatment, to significant reductions in CO2/H2O gas exchange (Anet, RD), decreases in Y (II) and ETR in PS II”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
Drought increased ETR/A ratio and over-reduced PS I centers under 1% SAP.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- Droughte1
- Outcome
- ETR/A ratio and over-reduced centers in PS Ie0
- Direction
- increasee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“an increase in the ETR/A ratio and over-reduced centers in PS I”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
e1“Drought led, especially in leaves in the 1% SAP treatment”
Claim · model-written summary
Drought-associated oxidative changes were indicated by higher MDA.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Outcome
- lipid peroxidation (MDA)e0
- Direction
- highere0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The latter change was indicated by higher levels of lipid peroxidation (MDA)”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
Limited water with 3% biochar and 0.1% SAP increased water use efficiency and proline content.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- 3% BC and 0.1% SAPe0
- Outcome
- WUE and proline contente0
- Direction
- increasinge0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“an effective adaptation to a limited water supply with 3% BC and 0.1% SAP by increasing WUE and proline content”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
Biochar mitigated reactive oxygen species levels.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Treatment
- BCe0
- Outcome
- level of reactive oxygen species (ROS)e0
- Direction
- mitigatinge0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“BC also had a mitigating effect on the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS)”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
Claim · model-written summary
The authors recommend accounting for plant–soil interactions and competition among amendments and roots when planning water-saving agriculture.
- Taxon
- Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Chenopodium quinoat0
- Outcome
- optimal biomass production and plant responsee0
- Qualifier
- plant soil interactions and competition between SAP, BC and the plant rootse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“optimal biomass production and plant response can only be reached if plant soil interactions and competition between SAP, BC and the plant roots are taken into account when planning for climate-resilient, water-saving agriculture”
t0“Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (cv. UDEC-5)”
The same questions in other papers
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Claims are grouped by organism, treatment and what was measured or targeted. A paper counts as positive when any of its claims in the group is positive.