Abstract
Wood vinegar (WV), a by-product of biomass pyrolysis rich in organic acids and phenolic compounds, has gained increasing attention as a sustainable input for crop production, mainly through foliar application. However, its high content of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) suggests that WV may (also) interact with plants through the gaseous phase, a pathway that has so far been overlooked. This study tested the hypothesis that WV can modulate plant physiological performance, metabolic status, and nutrient accumulation not only via direct foliar contact but also through exposure to WV-derived VOCs. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was used as a model crop and grown under controlled environmental conditions. Plants were subjected to weekly treatments consisting of either foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCs released from the same solution in a sealed chamber, without direct contact between the liquid and plant tissues, and were compared with untreated controls. Notably, plants exposed exclusively to WV-derived VOCs showed responses similar to those observed following foliar application. Both treatments significantly increased fresh weight, the content of chlorophyll, total polyphenols and the accumulation of key macro- and micronutrients, including Ca, K, P, S, and Zn. For both treatments, the efficiency of photosystem II remained stable, indicating the absence of photochemical stress, while stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, intercellular CO2 concentration, and net photosynthetic rate were markedly reduced, suggesting a regulated stomatal response. Physiological, biochemical, and mineral parameters were assessed using non-destructive optical techniques, gas exchange measurements, spectrophotometric assays, and X-ray fluorescence analysis. These findings indicate that exposure to the volatile fraction released from WV under the exposure conditions adopted in this study can elicit biostimulant-like responses comparable to those observed after foliar application.
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Claims 8
Claim · model-written summary
VOC exposure produced responses similar to foliar application.
- Taxon
- Lettuce
Lactuca sativae1 - Treatment
- WV-derived VOCse0
- Outcome
- responsese0
- Direction
- similare0
- Comparator
- foliar applicatione0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“plants exposed exclusively to WV-derived VOCs showed responses similar to those observed following foliar application”
e1“Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was used as a model crop”
Claim · model-written summary
Both wood-vinegar treatments significantly increased lettuce fresh weight.
- Taxon
- LettuceLactuca sativae3
- Treatment
- foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCse1
- Outcome
- fresh weighte0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Both treatments significantly increased fresh weight, the content of chlorophyll, total polyphenols and the accumulation of key macro- and micronutrients, including Ca, K, P, S, and Zn.”
e1“foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCs released from the same solution”
e2“compared with untreated controls”
e3“Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)”
Claim · model-written summary
Both treatments increased chlorophyll and polyphenol content.
- Taxon
- LettuceLactuca sativae3
- Treatment
- foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCse1
- Outcome
- the content of chlorophyll, total polyphenolse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Both treatments significantly increased fresh weight, the content of chlorophyll, total polyphenols and the accumulation of key macro- and micronutrients”
e1“foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCs released from the same solution”
e2“compared with untreated controls”
e3“Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)”
Claim · model-written summary
Both treatments increased accumulation of Ca, K and P.
- Taxon
- LettuceLactuca sativae3
- Treatment
- foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCse1
- Outcome
- accumulation of key macro- and micronutrients, including Ca, K, Pe0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Both treatments significantly increased fresh weight, the content of chlorophyll, total polyphenols and the accumulation of key macro- and micronutrients, including Ca, K, P, S, and Zn.”
e1“foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCs released from the same solution”
e2“compared with untreated controls”
e3“Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)”
Claim · model-written summary
Both treatments increased accumulation of S and Zn.
- Taxon
- LettuceLactuca sativae3
- Treatment
- foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCse1
- Outcome
- accumulation of key macro- and micronutrients, including Ca, K, P, S, and Zne0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Both treatments significantly increased fresh weight, the content of chlorophyll, total polyphenols and the accumulation of key macro- and micronutrients, including Ca, K, P, S, and Zn.”
e1“foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCs released from the same solution”
e2“compared with untreated controls”
e3“Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)”
Claim · model-written summary
Photosystem II efficiency remained stable under both treatments.
- Taxon
- LettuceLactuca sativae3
- Treatment
- foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCse1
- Outcome
- efficiency of photosystem IIe0
- Direction
- remained stablee0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“For both treatments, the efficiency of photosystem II remained stable”
e1“foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCs released from the same solution”
e2“compared with untreated controls”
e3“Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)”
Claim · model-written summary
Stomatal conductance, transpiration and intercellular CO2 were reduced under both treatments.
- Taxon
- LettuceLactuca sativae3
- Treatment
- foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCse1
- Outcome
- stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, intercellular CO2 concentratione0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, intercellular CO2 concentration, and net photosynthetic rate were markedly reduced”
e1“foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCs released from the same solution”
e2“compared with untreated controls”
e3“Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)”
Claim · model-written summary
Net photosynthetic rate was markedly reduced under both treatments.
- Taxon
- LettuceLactuca sativae3
- Treatment
- foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCse1
- Outcome
- net photosynthetic ratee0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Comparator
- untreated controlse2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, intercellular CO2 concentration, and net photosynthetic rate were markedly reduced”
e1“foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCs released from the same solution”
e2“compared with untreated controls”
e3“Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)”
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