Abstract
Declining soil fertility remains a critical barrier to sustainable agriculture and food security. Although chemical fertilizers enhance crop yields, their long-term use is unsustainable. Legume-based cropping systems combined with organic fertilizers offer a more ecologically sustainable alternative. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of integrating maize–soybean intercropping with black soldier fly frass fertilizer (BSFFF) on grain yield, soil carbon sequestration, and nutrient dynamics across two agro-ecological zones: Quzhou, Hebei Province, China, and Lisasadzi, Kasungu District, Malawi. A split-plot design was implemented, with cropping systems—sole maize (MZ), sole soybean (SB), and maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)—as main plots, and fertilizer treatments—no fertilizer (CK), sole BSFFF, synthetic fertilizer (NPK), and combination of BSFFF and NPK (½BSFFF+½NPK)—as subplots. All treatments were replicated three times. Results showed that intercropping improved land productivity (LER = 1.10 in Lisasadzi and LER = 1.06 in Quzhou) compared to sole cropping. The ½BSFFF+½NPK treatment in the intercropping system yielded the highest productivity, increasing grain yield by 14% in Lisasadzi and 9% in Quzhou. Sole BSFFF treatment also improved yields by 12% and 8%, respectively. BSFFF-amended plots recorded higher soil organic carbon (SOC) (42.9% in Lisasadzi; 25% in Quzhou), available phosphorus (10.0% and 18.2%), and available potassium (4.9% and 6.0%) compared to NPK-treated plots. These findings suggest that integrating BSFFF with maize–soybean intercropping improves crop productivity, enhances soil health, and boosts nutrient use efficiency. This approach offers a sustainable and adaptable alternative to chemical fertilizers for enhancing food production and soil resilience across diverse agro-ecological environments.
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Claims 13
Claim · model-written summary
Intercropping increased land productivity in Lisasadzi, with LER 1.10.
- Taxon
- maize–soybean
Glycine max
Zea mayse0e1 - Treatment
- intercroppinge0
- Outcome
- land productivitye0
- Direction
- improvede0
- Value
- LER = 1.10e0
- Comparator
- sole croppinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“intercropping improved land productivity (LER = 1.10 in Lisasadzi and LER = 1.06 in Quzhou) compared to sole cropping”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
Intercropping increased land productivity in Quzhou, with LER 1.06.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Treatment
- intercroppinge0
- Outcome
- land productivitye0
- Direction
- improvede0
- Value
- LER = 1.06e0
- Comparator
- sole croppinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“intercropping improved land productivity (LER = 1.10 in Lisasadzi and LER = 1.06 in Quzhou) compared to sole cropping”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
Combined half-rate BSFFF and NPK in intercropping increased grain yield 14% in Lisasadzi.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Treatment
- ½BSFFF+½NPK treatment in the intercropping systeme0
- Outcome
- grain yielde0
- Direction
- increasinge0
- Value
- 14%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The ½BSFFF+½NPK treatment in the intercropping system yielded the highest productivity, increasing grain yield by 14% in Lisasadzi and 9% in Quzhou”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
Combined half-rate BSFFF and NPK in intercropping increased grain yield 9% in Quzhou.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Treatment
- ½BSFFF+½NPK treatment in the intercropping systeme0
- Outcome
- grain yielde0
- Direction
- increasinge0
- Value
- 9%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The ½BSFFF+½NPK treatment in the intercropping system yielded the highest productivity, increasing grain yield by 14% in Lisasadzi and 9% in Quzhou”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
Sole BSFFF improved yield 12% in Lisasadzi.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1e2
- Treatment
- Sole BSFFF treatmente0
- Outcome
- yieldse0
- Direction
- improvede0
- Value
- 12%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Sole BSFFF treatment also improved yields by 12% and 8%, respectively”
e1“14% in Lisasadzi and 9% in Quzhou”
e2“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
Sole BSFFF improved yield 8% in Quzhou.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1e2
- Treatment
- Sole BSFFF treatmente0
- Outcome
- yieldse0
- Direction
- improvede0
- Value
- 8%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Sole BSFFF treatment also improved yields by 12% and 8%, respectively”
e1“14% in Lisasadzi and 9% in Quzhou”
e2“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
BSFFF raised soil organic carbon 42.9% relative to NPK in Lisasadzi.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Treatment
- BSFFF-amended plotse0
- Outcome
- soil organic carbon (SOC)e0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 42.9%e0
- Comparator
- NPK-treated plotse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“BSFFF-amended plots recorded higher soil organic carbon (SOC) (42.9% in Lisasadzi; 25% in Quzhou), available phosphorus (10.0% and 18.2%), and available potassium (4.9% and 6.0%) compared to NPK-treated plots”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
BSFFF raised soil organic carbon 25% relative to NPK in Quzhou.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Treatment
- BSFFF-amended plotse0
- Outcome
- soil organic carbon (SOC)e0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 25%e0
- Comparator
- NPK-treated plotse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“BSFFF-amended plots recorded higher soil organic carbon (SOC) (42.9% in Lisasadzi; 25% in Quzhou), available phosphorus (10.0% and 18.2%), and available potassium (4.9% and 6.0%) compared to NPK-treated plots”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
BSFFF raised available phosphorus 10.0% relative to NPK in Lisasadzi.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Treatment
- BSFFF-amended plotse0
- Outcome
- available phosphoruse0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 10.0%e0
- Comparator
- NPK-treated plotse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“BSFFF-amended plots recorded higher soil organic carbon (SOC) (42.9% in Lisasadzi; 25% in Quzhou), available phosphorus (10.0% and 18.2%), and available potassium (4.9% and 6.0%) compared to NPK-treated plots”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
BSFFF raised available phosphorus 18.2% relative to NPK in Quzhou.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Treatment
- BSFFF-amended plotse0
- Outcome
- available phosphoruse0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 18.2%e0
- Comparator
- NPK-treated plotse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“BSFFF-amended plots recorded higher soil organic carbon (SOC) (42.9% in Lisasadzi; 25% in Quzhou), available phosphorus (10.0% and 18.2%), and available potassium (4.9% and 6.0%) compared to NPK-treated plots”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
BSFFF raised available potassium 4.9% relative to NPK in Lisasadzi.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Treatment
- BSFFF-amended plotse0
- Outcome
- available potassiume0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 4.9%e0
- Comparator
- NPK-treated plotse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“BSFFF-amended plots recorded higher soil organic carbon (SOC) (42.9% in Lisasadzi; 25% in Quzhou), available phosphorus (10.0% and 18.2%), and available potassium (4.9% and 6.0%) compared to NPK-treated plots”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
BSFFF raised available potassium 6.0% relative to NPK in Quzhou.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Treatment
- BSFFF-amended plotse0
- Outcome
- available potassiume0
- Direction
- highere0
- Value
- 6.0%e0
- Comparator
- NPK-treated plotse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“BSFFF-amended plots recorded higher soil organic carbon (SOC) (42.9% in Lisasadzi; 25% in Quzhou), available phosphorus (10.0% and 18.2%), and available potassium (4.9% and 6.0%) compared to NPK-treated plots”
e1“maize–soybean intercropping (MZ + SB)”
Claim · model-written summary
Authors recommend BSFFF with intercropping as a sustainable food-production approach.
- Taxon
- maize–soybeanGlycine maxZea mayse0e1
- Outcome
- enhancing food production and soil resiliencee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“This approach offers a sustainable and adaptable alternative to chemical fertilizers for enhancing food production and soil resilience across diverse agro-ecological environments”
e1“integrating BSFFF with maize–soybean intercropping”
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