Abstract
Diminishing soil fertility and crop productivity due to traditional intensive cultivation has prompted the use of straw and manure to improve soil health in Northeast China. However, few comparative studies have explored the influence of varying straw and manure incorporation depths on crop growth. A field experiment in the rainfed black soil regions of Gongzhuling and Keshan assessed the effects of deep (30 cm) and shallow (15 cm) incorporations of straw and manure on soil fertility, maize root growth, and maize productivity. Deep incorporations, via subsoiling tillage (DST) and deep-plow (DDT) tillage, enhanced soil water storage of 30–100 cm soil layer during periods of low rainfall, improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT). Both DST and DDT induced a larger rooting depth and a higher fine root (diameter class 0–0.5 mm) length density by 31.0% and 28.9%, respectively, accompanied by reduced root turnover. Furthermore, the sub-surface foraging strategies of roots under the DST and DDT treatments boosted the total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium uptake (6.5–17.9%) and achieved a higher dry mass accumulation during the later growth period, thus leading to notable improvements in the 100-kernel weight and yield (16.1–19.7%) and enhancing water- and nutrient-use efficiencies by 2.5–20.5%. Overall, compared to shallow incorporation, deep incorporation of straw and manure significantly enhances root growth and spatial distribution of soil water and nutrients, which has great potential for increasing maize yield in rainfed agricultural areas.
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Claims 10
Claim · model-written summary
Deep incorporation (DST and DDT) enhanced soil water storage of the 30–100 cm soil layer during low rainfall compared with shallow rotary tillage.
- Treatment
- Deep incorporations, via subsoiling tillage (DST) and deep-plow (DDT) tillagee1
- Outcome
- soil water storage of 30–100 cm soil layere1
- Direction
- enhancede1
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
- Setting
- rainfed black soil regions of Gongzhuling and Keshane0
Zea maysOrganisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“A field experiment in the rainfed black soil regions of Gongzhuling and Keshan”
e1“Deep incorporations, via subsoiling tillage (DST) and deep-plow (DDT) tillage, enhanced soil water storage of 30–100 cm soil layer during periods of low rainfall”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
Claim · model-written summary
Deep incorporation improved the availability of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and soil organic matter compared with shallow incorporation.
- Treatment
- Deep incorporations, via subsoiling tillage (DST) and deep-plow (DDT) tillagee1
- Outcome
- availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter contente2
- Direction
- improvede2
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e1“Deep incorporations, via subsoiling tillage (DST) and deep-plow (DDT) tillage, enhanced soil water storage of 30–100 cm soil layer during periods of low rainfall”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
Claim · model-written summary
DST and DDT induced a larger rooting depth than shallow rotary tillage.
- Treatment
- DST and DDTe3
- Outcome
- rooting depthe3
- Direction
- largere3
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e3“Both DST and DDT induced a larger rooting depth and a higher fine root (diameter class 0–0.5 mm) length density by 31.0% and 28.9%, respectively, accompanied by reduced root turnover”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
Claim · model-written summary
DST increased fine root length density by 31.0% compared with shallow rotary tillage.
- Treatment
- DSTe3
- Outcome
- fine root (diameter class 0–0.5 mm) length densitye3
- Direction
- highere3
- Value
- 31.0%e3
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e3“Both DST and DDT induced a larger rooting depth and a higher fine root (diameter class 0–0.5 mm) length density by 31.0% and 28.9%, respectively, accompanied by reduced root turnover”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
Claim · model-written summary
DDT increased fine root length density by 28.9% compared with shallow rotary tillage.
- Treatment
- DDTe3
- Outcome
- fine root (diameter class 0–0.5 mm) length densitye3
- Direction
- highere3
- Value
- 28.9%e3
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e3“Both DST and DDT induced a larger rooting depth and a higher fine root (diameter class 0–0.5 mm) length density by 31.0% and 28.9%, respectively, accompanied by reduced root turnover”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
Claim · model-written summary
DST and DDT reduced root turnover compared with shallow rotary tillage.
- Treatment
- DST and DDTe3
- Outcome
- root turnovere3
- Direction
- reducede3
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e3“Both DST and DDT induced a larger rooting depth and a higher fine root (diameter class 0–0.5 mm) length density by 31.0% and 28.9%, respectively, accompanied by reduced root turnover”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
Claim · model-written summary
DST and DDT boosted total nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium uptake by 6.5–17.9% compared with shallow rotary tillage.
- Treatment
- DST and DDT treatmentse4
- Outcome
- total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium uptakee4
- Direction
- boostede4
- Value
- 6.5–17.9%e4
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e4“the sub-surface foraging strategies of roots under the DST and DDT treatments boosted the total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium uptake (6.5–17.9%)”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
Claim · model-written summary
DST and DDT achieved a higher dry mass accumulation during the later growth period than shallow rotary tillage.
- Organ / stage
- later growth periode5
- Treatment
- DST and DDT treatmentse4
- Outcome
- dry mass accumulatione5
- Direction
- highere5
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e5“achieved a higher dry mass accumulation during the later growth period”
e4“the sub-surface foraging strategies of roots under the DST and DDT treatments boosted the total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium uptake (6.5–17.9%)”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
Claim · model-written summary
DST and DDT improved 100-kernel weight and yield by 16.1–19.7% compared with shallow rotary tillage.
- Treatment
- DST and DDT treatmentse4
- Outcome
- 100-kernel weight and yielde6
- Direction
- improvementse6
- Value
- 16.1–19.7%e6
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e6“notable improvements in the 100-kernel weight and yield (16.1–19.7%)”
e4“the sub-surface foraging strategies of roots under the DST and DDT treatments boosted the total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium uptake (6.5–17.9%)”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
Claim · model-written summary
DST and DDT enhanced water- and nutrient-use efficiencies by 2.5–20.5% compared with shallow rotary tillage.
- Treatment
- DST and DDT treatmentse4
- Outcome
- water- and nutrient-use efficienciese7
- Direction
- enhancinge7
- Value
- 2.5–20.5%e7
- Comparator
- shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)e2
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e7“enhancing water- and nutrient-use efficiencies by 2.5–20.5%”
e4“the sub-surface foraging strategies of roots under the DST and DDT treatments boosted the total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium uptake (6.5–17.9%)”
e2“improved the availability of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and soil organic matter content, especially in deeper soil, compared to shallow incorporation using rotary tillage (SRT)”
t0“Maize Production”
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