Abstract
With the continuous expansion of Pleurotus ostreatus cultivation, substantial quantities of post-harvest spent mushroom substrate (SMS) are generated. Improper disposal of this organic waste poses potential threats to soil health, including contamination and ecological imbalance. Consequently, a rigorous safety assessment is indispensable to support the sustainable and agronomically viable utilization of SMS as a soil amendment. In this study, P. ostreatus SMS was subjected to sterilized and non-sterilized treatments, and a controlled co-culture system integrating P. ostreatus mycelium with wheat was established. This system facilitated a comprehensive evaluation of residual mycelium impacts on wheat growth and development at phenotypic, cytological, and non-targeted metabolomics (LC-MS) levels. Results demonstrated that direct field application of non-sterilized SMS severely compromised wheat performance, inducing root necrosis and significantly reducing grain set. Comparative experiments confirmed that non-sterilized SMS—not its sterilized counterpart—exerted pronounced phytotoxic effects, markedly inhibiting seedling growth and triggering wilting symptoms. To elucidate the temporal dynamics of mycelial interaction, wheat seedlings were inoculated with viable P. ostreatus mycelium and co-cultured for seven days. Under these conditions, the mean root length of the control group (10.82 cm) was approximately threefold that of the treatment group. Histopathological analysis revealed a progressive infection pattern initiating at the root apex and extending basipetally; prolonged exposure ultimately caused complete root system collapse. Scanning electron microscopy further showed extensive mycelial colonization on infected root surfaces, accompanied by characteristic cellular damage—including severe cell wall wrinkling and widespread cell death. LC-MS profiling identified 1867 annotated compounds. Comparative analysis revealed significant dysregulation of secondary metabolism, with 495 metabolites upregulated and 419 metabolites downregulated in the treatment group. Collectively, these findings provide robust evidence that unprocessed P. ostreatus SMS poses tangible agronomic risks upon direct soil application. This study establishes a critical scientific foundation for developing safe, evidence-based protocols for the valorization and integrated management of SMS.
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Claims 12
Claim · model-written summary
Non sterilized spent mushroom substrate induced wheat root necrosis in field application.
- Taxon
- wheat
Triticum aestivume0 - Organ / stage
- roote0
- Treatment
- non-sterilized SMSe0
- Outcome
- root necrosise0
- Setting
- fielde0
Not reportedComparatorDirection
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“direct field application of non-sterilized SMS severely compromised wheat performance, inducing root necrosis”
Claim · model-written summary
Non sterilized spent mushroom substrate significantly reduced wheat grain set in field application.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivume0
- Treatment
- non-sterilized SMSe0
- Outcome
- grain sete0
- Direction
- reducinge0
- Setting
- fielde0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“direct field application of non-sterilized SMS severely compromised wheat performance, inducing root necrosis and significantly reducing grain set”
Claim · model-written summary
Non sterilized substrate markedly inhibited wheat seedling growth compared with sterilized substrate.
- Taxon
- Triticum aestivum L.Triticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- non-sterilized SMSe0
- Outcome
- seedling growthe0
- Direction
- inhibitinge0
- Comparator
- sterilized counterparte0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“non-sterilized SMS—not its sterilized counterpart—exerted pronounced phytotoxic effects, markedly inhibiting seedling growth”
t0“Triticum aestivum L.”
Claim · model-written summary
Non sterilized substrate triggered wheat wilting symptoms compared with sterilized substrate.
- Taxon
- Triticum aestivum L.Triticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- non-sterilized SMSe0
- Outcome
- wilting symptomse0
- Comparator
- sterilized counterparte0
Not reportedDirection
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“non-sterilized SMS—not its sterilized counterpart—exerted pronounced phytotoxic effects, markedly inhibiting seedling growth and triggering wilting symptoms”
t0“Triticum aestivum L.”
Claim · model-written summary
After seven days with viable Pleurotus mycelium, wheat roots were about one third the length of controls.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivume0
- Treatment
- inoculated with viable P. ostreatus myceliume0
- Interactor
- P. ostreatus
Pleurotus ostreatuse0pathogen - Outcome
- mean root lengthe0
- Direction
- threefolde0
- Value
- 10.82 cme0
- Qualifier
- seven dayse0
- Comparator
- control groupe0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“wheat seedlings were inoculated with viable P. ostreatus mycelium and co-cultured for seven days. Under these conditions, the mean root length of the control group (10.82 cm) was approximately threefold that of the treatment group.”
Claim · model-written summary
Mycelial infection of wheat roots progressed from the apex toward the base.
- Taxon
- Triticum aestivum L.Triticum aestivumt0
- Organ / stage
- root apexe0
- Interactor
- P. ostreatusPleurotus ostreatuse1pathogen
- Outcome
- progressive infection pattern initiating at the root apex and extending basipetallye0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“a progressive infection pattern initiating at the root apex and extending basipetally”
e1“wheat seedlings were inoculated with viable P. ostreatus mycelium”
t0“Triticum aestivum L.”
Claim · model-written summary
Prolonged exposure to mycelium caused complete wheat root system collapse.
- Taxon
- Triticum aestivum L.Triticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- inoculated with viable P. ostreatus myceliume1
- Interactor
- P. ostreatusPleurotus ostreatuse1pathogen
- Outcome
- complete root system collapsee0
Not reportedComparatorDirection
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“prolonged exposure ultimately caused complete root system collapse.”
e1“wheat seedlings were inoculated with viable P. ostreatus mycelium”
t0“Triticum aestivum L.”
Claim · model-written summary
Mycelium extensively colonized infected wheat root surfaces.
- Taxon
- Triticum aestivum L.Triticum aestivumt0
- Organ / stage
- root surfacese0
- Interactor
- P. ostreatusPleurotus ostreatuse1pathogen
- Outcome
- extensive mycelial colonization on infected root surfacese0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“extensive mycelial colonization on infected root surfaces”
e1“wheat seedlings were inoculated with viable P. ostreatus mycelium”
t0“Triticum aestivum L.”
Claim · model-written summary
Infected wheat root surfaces showed severe cell wall wrinkling and widespread cell death.
- Taxon
- Triticum aestivum L.Triticum aestivumt0
- Organ / stage
- root surfacese1
- Outcome
- severe cell wall wrinkling and widespread cell deathe0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“characteristic cellular damage—including severe cell wall wrinkling and widespread cell death.”
e1“infected root surfaces”
t0“Triticum aestivum L.”
Claim · model-written summary
LC MS profiling annotated 1867 compounds in the wheat interaction study.
- Taxon
- Triticum aestivum L.Triticum aestivumt0
- Outcome
- annotated compoundse0
- Value
- 1867e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“LC-MS profiling identified 1867 annotated compounds.”
t0“Triticum aestivum L.”
Claim · model-written summary
Mycelium treatment upregulated 495 wheat metabolites.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivume2
- Treatment
- inoculated with viable P. ostreatus myceliume2
- Interactor
- P. ostreatusPleurotus ostreatuse2pathogen
- Outcome
- metabolitese0
- Direction
- upregulatede0
- Value
- 495e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“495 metabolites upregulated”
e1“in the treatment group.”
e2“wheat seedlings were inoculated with viable P. ostreatus mycelium”
Claim · model-written summary
Mycelium treatment downregulated 419 wheat metabolites.
- Taxon
- wheatTriticum aestivume1
- Treatment
- inoculated with viable P. ostreatus myceliume1
- Interactor
- P. ostreatusPleurotus ostreatuse1pathogen
- Outcome
- metabolitese0
- Direction
- downregulatede0
- Value
- 419e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“419 metabolites downregulated”
e1“wheat seedlings were inoculated with viable P. ostreatus mycelium”
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