Abstract
Water-saving irrigation practices (WSIs) are increasingly promoted to address water scarcity and sustain global rice production, with proven potential to reduce global warming potential (GWP) in low water-use efficiency paddy fields. However, most studies are site-specific, leading to inconsistent effects on yield and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To address this uncertainty, we conducted a global meta-analysis synthesizing 2277 observations from 108 publications to evaluate the impacts of WSIs on rice yield, CH 4 , N 2 O, GWP, and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI). Compared with traditional flooding irrigation (FI), WSIs maintained grain yield while reducing CH 4 emissions by 71.0 %, GWP by 54.7 %, and GHGI by 51.7 %, but increased N 2 O emissions by 39.5 %. Among WSI types, alternate wetting and drying irrigation (AWD), controlled irrigation (CI), and wet irrigation (WI) achieved comparable mitigation effects, whereas shallow irrigation (SI) and intermittent irrigation (IR) were less effective. Yield increased under CI (+4.5 %), SI (+3.4 %), and IR (+3.1 %), remained stable under AWD, and decreased under WI (−2.5 %). WSIs achieved the greatest GWP reductions in light loam soils, at temperatures of 25–30 °C, with cumulative precipitation below 400 mm, and at soil pH ≤ 6.5. Nitrogen application rate did not significantly influence GWP mitigation, whereas biochar amendment increased yield by 2.3 % and reduced GWP by 84.9 %. In addition, WSIs increased net eco-economic benefits compared with FI. Optimizing WSI selection based on regional conditions and integrating with complementary agronomic measures can reduce non-CO 2 emissions while sustaining or improving rice yield, supporting climate change mitigation and sustainable production. • Proper water saving irrigation (WSI) raised rice yield, reduced global warming potential (GWP) and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI). • Climate factors strongly affected non-CO 2 greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions under WSI. • Acidic soil had an optimal effect of increasing yield and reducing emissions under WSI. • Application rates of 100–150 kg N ha −1 and 200–250 kg N ha −1 resulted in lower GWP compared to other levels. • Biochar amendment, combined with WSI, is a strategy for lowering emissions and boosting yield.
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Claims 19
Claim · model-written summary
Water-saving irrigation maintained rice grain yield relative to flooding.
- Taxon
- rice
Oryza sativat0 - Treatment
- WSIse0
- Outcome
- grain yielde0
- Direction
- maintainede0
- Comparator
- traditional flooding irrigation (FI)e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared with traditional flooding irrigation (FI), WSIs maintained grain yield while reducing CH 4 emissions by 71.0 %, GWP by 54.7 %, and GHGI by 51.7 %, but increased N 2 O emissions by 39.5 %.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Water-saving irrigation reduced CH4 emissions by 71.0% relative to flooding.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- WSIse0
- Outcome
- CH 4 emissionse0
- Direction
- reducinge0
- Value
- 71.0 %e0
- Comparator
- traditional flooding irrigation (FI)e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared with traditional flooding irrigation (FI), WSIs maintained grain yield while reducing CH 4 emissions by 71.0 %, GWP by 54.7 %, and GHGI by 51.7 %, but increased N 2 O emissions by 39.5 %.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Water-saving irrigation reduced GWP by 54.7% relative to flooding.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- WSIse0
- Outcome
- GWPe0
- Direction
- reducinge0
- Value
- 54.7 %e0
- Comparator
- traditional flooding irrigation (FI)e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared with traditional flooding irrigation (FI), WSIs maintained grain yield while reducing CH 4 emissions by 71.0 %, GWP by 54.7 %, and GHGI by 51.7 %, but increased N 2 O emissions by 39.5 %.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Water-saving irrigation reduced GHGI by 51.7% relative to flooding.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- WSIse0
- Outcome
- GHGIe0
- Direction
- reducinge0
- Value
- 51.7 %e0
- Comparator
- traditional flooding irrigation (FI)e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared with traditional flooding irrigation (FI), WSIs maintained grain yield while reducing CH 4 emissions by 71.0 %, GWP by 54.7 %, and GHGI by 51.7 %, but increased N 2 O emissions by 39.5 %.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Water-saving irrigation increased N2O emissions by 39.5% relative to flooding.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- WSIse0
- Outcome
- N 2 O emissionse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 39.5 %e0
- Comparator
- traditional flooding irrigation (FI)e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Compared with traditional flooding irrigation (FI), WSIs maintained grain yield while reducing CH 4 emissions by 71.0 %, GWP by 54.7 %, and GHGI by 51.7 %, but increased N 2 O emissions by 39.5 %.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD, CI, and WI had comparable mitigation effects.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- alternate wetting and drying irrigation (AWD), controlled irrigation (CI), and wet irrigation (WI)e0
- Outcome
- comparable mitigation effectse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Among WSI types, alternate wetting and drying irrigation (AWD), controlled irrigation (CI), and wet irrigation (WI) achieved comparable mitigation effects”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
SI and IR were less effective for mitigation.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- shallow irrigation (SI) and intermittent irrigation (IR)e0
- Outcome
- less effectivee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“whereas shallow irrigation (SI) and intermittent irrigation (IR) were less effective.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
CI increased rice yield by 4.5%.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Yield increased under CI (+4.5 %), SI (+3.4 %), and IR (+3.1 %), remained stable under AWD, and decreased under WI (−2.5 %).”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
SI increased rice yield by 3.4%.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Yield increased under CI (+4.5 %), SI (+3.4 %), and IR (+3.1 %), remained stable under AWD, and decreased under WI (−2.5 %).”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
IR increased rice yield by 3.1%.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Yield increased under CI (+4.5 %), SI (+3.4 %), and IR (+3.1 %), remained stable under AWD, and decreased under WI (−2.5 %).”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Rice yield remained stable under AWD.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- AWDe0
- Outcome
- Yielde0
- Direction
- remained stablee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Yield increased under CI (+4.5 %), SI (+3.4 %), and IR (+3.1 %), remained stable under AWD, and decreased under WI (−2.5 %).”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
WI decreased rice yield by 2.5%.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Yield increased under CI (+4.5 %), SI (+3.4 %), and IR (+3.1 %), remained stable under AWD, and decreased under WI (−2.5 %).”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
The greatest WSI GWP reductions occurred in light loam soils, 25–30 °C temperatures, below 400 mm precipitation, and soil pH ≤ 6.5.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Outcome
- GWP reductionse0
- Direction
- greateste0
- Qualifier
- light loam soils, at temperatures of 25–30 °C, with cumulative precipitation below 400 mm, and at soil pH ≤ 6.5e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“WSIs achieved the greatest GWP reductions in light loam soils, at temperatures of 25–30 °C, with cumulative precipitation below 400 mm, and at soil pH ≤ 6.5.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Nitrogen application rate did not significantly influence GWP mitigation.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- Nitrogen application ratee0
- Outcome
- GWP mitigatione0
Not reportedDirection
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Nitrogen application rate did not significantly influence GWP mitigation”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Biochar amendment increased yield by 2.3%.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“biochar amendment increased yield by 2.3 % and reduced GWP by 84.9 %.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Biochar amendment reduced GWP by 84.9%.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“biochar amendment increased yield by 2.3 % and reduced GWP by 84.9 %.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
WSIs increased net eco-economic benefits versus flooding.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- WSIse0
- Outcome
- net eco-economic benefitse0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Comparator
- FIe0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“WSIs increased net eco-economic benefits compared with FI.”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
WSI selection should be optimized for regional conditions and combined with agronomic measures to reduce emissions while sustaining yield.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Outcome
- Optimizing WSI selection based on regional conditions and integrating with complementary agronomic measurese0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Optimizing WSI selection based on regional conditions and integrating with complementary agronomic measures can reduce non-CO 2 emissions while sustaining or improving rice yield”
t0“rice yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Nitrogen rates of 100–150 and 200–250 kg N ha−1 gave lower GWP than other levels.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- 100–150 kg N ha −1 and 200–250 kg N ha −1e0
- Outcome
- GWPe0
- Direction
- lowere0
- Comparator
- other levelse0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Application rates of 100–150 kg N ha −1 and 200–250 kg N ha −1 resulted in lower GWP compared to other levels.”
t0“rice yield”
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