Abstract
Introduction Salinity stress severely restricts plant growth and yield, reducing global crop productivity. Ensuring food security requires sustainable strategies to mitigate salinity damage. Beneficial microorganisms used as biofertilizers enhance plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. This study examined the response of spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. cv. Yecora Rojo) to biofertilizers under varying salinity levels to assess their potential in enhancing salt stress tolerance. Methods Three treatments were applied: untreated control (C), grain treatment (GT), and grain plus root treatment (GRT). Salinity stress was imposed using diluted seawater at 0, 2000, 4000, and 6000 ppm. The biofertilizer formulation included Azotobacter chroococcum , Bacillus megaterium , and Bacillus circulans . Physiological traits (chlorophyll, cell membrane stability, relative water content), biochemical markers (proline, malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide), and antioxidant enzyme activities (catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase) were measured. Expression of salinity-responsive genes (TaCAT1, TaPOD-D1, TaSOD2, TaHKT1;4, TaNHX2, TaP5CS, TaFER-5B) was also analyzed. Results Salinity significantly reduced wheat growth, chlorophyll levels, membrane stability, and water content. Biofertilizer treatments, especially GRT, alleviated these effects by maintaining chlorophyll and water status while reducing oxidative damage. Antioxidant enzyme activities increased, improving scavenging of reactive oxygen species. Biofertilizers also upregulated stress-related genes, enhancing osmotic adjustment, ion balance, and antioxidant defenses. Correlation analysis confirmed strong physiological and biochemical interactions supporting stress tolerance. Discussion & conclusion Biofertilizers represent an eco-friendly and sustainable strategy to enhance wheat salinity tolerance. By boosting antioxidant defenses, osmolyte accumulation, and ion regulation, they mitigate salt-induced damage. GRT provided the greatest benefit, highlighting the synergistic effect of dual grain and root inoculation.
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Claims 7
Claim · model-written summary
Salinity reduced wheat growth, chlorophyll, membrane stability and water content.
- Taxon
- wheat
Triticum aestivume0 - Treatment
- Salinitye0
- Outcome
- wheat growth, chlorophyll levels, membrane stability, and water contente0
- Direction
- reducede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Salinity significantly reduced wheat growth, chlorophyll levels, membrane stability, and water content”
Claim · model-written summary
Biofertilizer treatment maintained chlorophyll and water status under salinity.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- Biofertilizer treatmentse0
- Outcome
- chlorophyll and water statuse0
- Direction
- maintaininge0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Biofertilizer treatments, especially GRT, alleviated these effects by maintaining chlorophyll and water status while reducing oxidative damage”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Biofertilizer treatment reduced oxidative damage under salinity.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- Biofertilizer treatmentse0
- Outcome
- oxidative damagee0
- Direction
- reducinge0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Biofertilizer treatments, especially GRT, alleviated these effects by maintaining chlorophyll and water status while reducing oxidative damage”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Antioxidant enzyme activities increased with biofertilizer treatment.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- Biofertilizerse1
- Outcome
- Antioxidant enzyme activitiese0
- Direction
- increasede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Antioxidant enzyme activities increased, improving scavenging of reactive oxygen species”
e1“Biofertilizers also upregulated stress-related genes, enhancing osmotic adjustment, ion balance, and antioxidant defenses”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Biofertilizers upregulated stress related genes.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- Biofertilizerse0
- Outcome
- stress-related genese0
- Direction
- upregulatede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Biofertilizers also upregulated stress-related genes, enhancing osmotic adjustment, ion balance, and antioxidant defenses”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Physiological and biochemical measures were strongly correlated in the stress tolerance analysis.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Outcome
- strong physiological and biochemical interactionse0
- Qualifier
- supporting stress tolerancee0
Not reportedOrgan / stageTreatmentSettingDirection
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Correlation analysis confirmed strong physiological and biochemical interactions supporting stress tolerance”
t0“spring wheat”
Claim · model-written summary
Dual grain and root biofertilizer treatment provided the greatest benefit.
- Taxon
- spring wheatTriticum aestivumt0
- Treatment
- GRTe0
- Outcome
- greatest benefite0
- Direction
- greateste0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“GRT provided the greatest benefit, highlighting the synergistic effect of dual grain and root inoculation”
t0“spring wheat”
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