Abstract
Abstract Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) water management is being promoted to replace continuous flooding (CF) water regime in rice cultivation for agricultural countries, including Thailand, to achieve the net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and cope with drought. However, its adoption in different areas yielding variable results that requires the careful approaches to prevent negative impacts on rice yield, particularly the aroma of fragrant rice, along with mitigating GHG emissions, mainly methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O). This study aims to assess the impacts of AWD on CH 4 and N 2 O emissions, productivity, water use, and soil characteristics of fragrant rice cultivation in Thailand. Khao Dawk Mali (KDML) 105 cultivar was cultivated in the wet season and Pathum Thani (PTT) 1 cultivar was planted in the dry season under CF and AWD at different dry levels of 10 cm (AWD10), 15 cm (AWD15), and 20 cm (AWD20) below the soil surface. The emissions of GHG and water use were measured throughout the study period using closed-chamber technique and water meter equipment, respectively. Rice yields and soil properties were analyzed after crop harvesting. The results showed that rice cultivation under AWD in both wet and dry seasons reduced CH 4 emissions (18.4%–27.6%) but stimulated N 2 O emissions (11.8%–15.0%). However, its global warming potential (GWP) was lower than CF, lowered by an average of 17.7%, 26.8%, and 25.5% under the AWD10, AWD15, and AWD20, respectively. Relative to CF, unsuccessful AWD in the wet season did not change rice yield quantity and aroma (2-acetyl-1-pyrroline: 2AP) of KDML 105. Conversely, successful AWD10 and AWD15 in the dry season promoted rice grain yield and 2AP (0.27–0.33 ppm) of PTT1, while AWD20 did not alter rice yield amount but increased rice aroma (0.47 ppm). AWD can save irrigation water in the range of 12.8%–23.0% and 15.5%–18.7% in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. AWD water regime did not importantly change the soil characteristics after crop harvest. This study concludes that AWD, especially AWD15 and AWD20, has the potential to reduce GHG emissions without affecting the quantity and quality of rice yield, along with saving water.
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Claims 15
Claim · model-written summary
AWD reduced methane emissions in both seasons by 18.4%–27.6%.
- Taxon
- rice
Oryza sativae0 - Treatment
- AWDe0
- Outcome
- CH 4 emissionse0
- Direction
- reducede0
- Value
- 18.4%–27.6%e0
- Comparator
- CFe1
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“rice cultivation under AWD in both wet and dry seasons reduced CH 4 emissions (18.4%–27.6%)”
e1“GWP) was lower than CF”
t0“alternate wetting and drying water management”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD increased nitrous oxide emissions by 11.8%–15.0%.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- alternate wetting and drying water managementt0
- Outcome
- N 2 O emissionse0
- Direction
- stimulatede0
- Value
- 11.8%–15.0%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“stimulated N 2 O emissions (11.8%–15.0%)”
t0“rice cultivation under alternate wetting and drying water management”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD10 lowered global warming potential by 17.7% relative to CF.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“GWP) was lower than CF, lowered by an average of 17.7%, 26.8%, and 25.5% under the AWD10, AWD15, and AWD20, respectively”
t0“rice cultivation”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD15 lowered global warming potential by 26.8% relative to CF.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“GWP) was lower than CF, lowered by an average of 17.7%, 26.8%, and 25.5% under the AWD10, AWD15, and AWD20, respectively”
t0“rice cultivation”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD20 lowered global warming potential by 25.5% relative to CF.
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“GWP) was lower than CF, lowered by an average of 17.7%, 26.8%, and 25.5% under the AWD10, AWD15, and AWD20, respectively”
t0“rice cultivation”
Claim · model-written summary
Wet-season AWD did not change KDML 105 yield or aroma relative to CF.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativae0
- Material
- KDML 105e0
- Treatment
- AWDe0
- Outcome
- rice yield quantity and aromae0
- Direction
- did not changee0
- Qualifier
- wet seasone0
- Comparator
- CFe0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Relative to CF, unsuccessful AWD in the wet season did not change rice yield quantity and aroma (2-acetyl-1-pyrroline: 2AP) of KDML 105”
Claim · model-written summary
Dry-season AWD10 increased PTT1 grain yield.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“successful AWD10 and AWD15 in the dry season promoted rice grain yield and 2AP (0.27–0.33 ppm) of PTT1”
Claim · model-written summary
Dry-season AWD15 increased PTT1 grain yield.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“successful AWD10 and AWD15 in the dry season promoted rice grain yield and 2AP (0.27–0.33 ppm) of PTT1”
Claim · model-written summary
Dry-season AWD10 increased PTT1 2AP.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativae0
- Material
- PTT1e0
- Treatment
- AWD10e0
- Outcome
- 2APe0
- Direction
- promotede0
- Value
- 0.27–0.33 ppme0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“successful AWD10 and AWD15 in the dry season promoted rice grain yield and 2AP (0.27–0.33 ppm) of PTT1”
Claim · model-written summary
Dry-season AWD15 increased PTT1 2AP.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativae0
- Material
- PTT1e0
- Treatment
- AWD15e0
- Outcome
- 2APe0
- Direction
- promotede0
- Value
- 0.27–0.33 ppme0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“successful AWD10 and AWD15 in the dry season promoted rice grain yield and 2AP (0.27–0.33 ppm) of PTT1”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD20 did not change PTT1 yield.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativae0
- Treatment
- AWD20e0
- Outcome
- rice yield amounte0
- Direction
- did not altere0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“AWD20 did not alter rice yield amount but increased rice aroma (0.47 ppm)”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD20 increased PTT1 rice aroma to 0.47 ppm.
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“AWD20 did not alter rice yield amount but increased rice aroma (0.47 ppm)”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD saved 12.8%–23.0% irrigation water in the wet season.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- AWDe0
- Outcome
- irrigation watere0
- Direction
- savee0
- Value
- 12.8%–23.0%e0
- Qualifier
- wete0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“AWD can save irrigation water in the range of 12.8%–23.0% and 15.5%–18.7% in the wet and dry seasons, respectively”
t0“rice cultivation”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD saved 15.5%–18.7% irrigation water in the dry season.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- AWDe0
- Outcome
- irrigation watere0
- Direction
- savee0
- Value
- 15.5%–18.7%e0
- Qualifier
- dry seasonse0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“AWD can save irrigation water in the range of 12.8%–23.0% and 15.5%–18.7% in the wet and dry seasons, respectively”
t0“rice cultivation”
Claim · model-written summary
AWD did not appreciably change soil characteristics after harvest.
- Taxon
- riceOryza sativat0
- Treatment
- AWD water regimee0
- Outcome
- soil characteristicse0
- Direction
- did not importantly changee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“AWD water regime did not importantly change the soil characteristics after crop harvest”
t0“rice cultivation”
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