Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess the phytoremediation potential of fiber flax (Linum usitatissimatum L., var. Calista) cultivated in a soil contaminated with multiple metals, under real field conditions. A two-year (2022 and 2023) field experiment was conducted in a site contaminated with elevated concentrations of Cd, Ni, Cu, Pb, and Zn due to mining and metallurgical activities. Three different nitrogen fertilization levels were tested (N0: 0 kg N ha−1, N1: 30 kg N ha−1, N2: 60 kg N ha−1), and both spring and winter sowings were conducted. At full maturity, growth parameters and yields were measured. The phytoremediation potential of flax was assessed in terms of the metal concentrations in the above-ground biomass and of the metal uptake (i.e., the potential removal of the soil metals in g ha−1 and per year). Flax demonstrated a shorter growth cycle, with shorter and thicker plants and higher yields when sown in spring compared to winter sowing. Plant growth and productivity were not evidently influenced by additional nitrogen fertilization during plant growth. The cadmium bioaccumulation factor was 1.06, indicating that flax accumulates this metal. For Ni, Cu, Pb, and Zn, the corresponding values were 0.0, 0.04, 0.004, and 0.02, suggesting that this crop excludes these metals. The order of the higher uptake in plant tissues was as follows: Zn > Pb > Cd > Cu > Ni. In conclusion, flax demonstrated tolerance to heavy metals in the soil, effectively supporting soil restoration through cultivation. Additionally, flax showed potential as a cadmium accumulator while excluding nickel, copper, lead, and zinc.
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Claims 11
Claim · model-written summary
Spring sowing shortened the flax growth cycle relative to winter sowing.
- Taxon
- Flax
Linum usitatissimume0 - Treatment
- sown in springe0
- Outcome
- growth cyclee0
- Direction
- shortere0
- Comparator
- winter sowinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Flax demonstrated a shorter growth cycle, with shorter and thicker plants and higher yields when sown in spring compared to winter sowing.”
Claim · model-written summary
Spring sowing produced shorter and thicker flax plants than winter sowing.
- Taxon
- FlaxLinum usitatissimume0
- Treatment
- sown in springe0
- Outcome
- shorter and thicker plantse0
- Direction
- shortere0
- Comparator
- winter sowinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Flax demonstrated a shorter growth cycle, with shorter and thicker plants and higher yields when sown in spring compared to winter sowing.”
Claim · model-written summary
Spring sowing increased flax yield relative to winter sowing.
- Taxon
- FlaxLinum usitatissimume0
- Treatment
- sown in springe0
- Outcome
- yieldse0
- Direction
- highere0
- Comparator
- winter sowinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Flax demonstrated a shorter growth cycle, with shorter and thicker plants and higher yields when sown in spring compared to winter sowing.”
Claim · model-written summary
Additional nitrogen did not evidently influence flax growth and productivity.
- Taxon
- FlaxLinum usitatissimumt0
- Treatment
- additional nitrogen fertilizatione0
- Outcome
- Plant growth and productivitye0
- Direction
- not evidently influencede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“Plant growth and productivity were not evidently influenced by additional nitrogen fertilization during plant growth.”
t0“Flax”
Claim · model-written summary
Flax had a cadmium bioaccumulation factor of 1.06.
- Taxon
- flaxLinum usitatissimume0
- Outcome
- cadmium bioaccumulation factore0
- Value
- 1.06e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The cadmium bioaccumulation factor was 1.06, indicating that flax accumulates this metal.”
Claim · model-written summary
Flax had a Ni bioaccumulation factor of 0.0.
- Taxon
- FlaxLinum usitatissimumt0
- Outcome
- Nie0
- Value
- 0.0e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“For Ni, Cu, Pb, and Zn, the corresponding values were 0.0, 0.04, 0.004, and 0.02, suggesting that this crop excludes these metals.”
t0“Flax”
Claim · model-written summary
Flax had a Cu bioaccumulation factor of 0.04.
- Taxon
- FlaxLinum usitatissimumt0
- Outcome
- Cue0
- Value
- 0.04e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“For Ni, Cu, Pb, and Zn, the corresponding values were 0.0, 0.04, 0.004, and 0.02, suggesting that this crop excludes these metals.”
t0“Flax”
Claim · model-written summary
Flax had a Pb bioaccumulation factor of 0.004.
- Taxon
- FlaxLinum usitatissimumt0
- Outcome
- Pbe0
- Value
- 0.004e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“For Ni, Cu, Pb, and Zn, the corresponding values were 0.0, 0.04, 0.004, and 0.02, suggesting that this crop excludes these metals.”
t0“Flax”
Claim · model-written summary
Flax had a Zn bioaccumulation factor of 0.02.
- Taxon
- FlaxLinum usitatissimumt0
- Outcome
- Zne0
- Value
- 0.02e0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“For Ni, Cu, Pb, and Zn, the corresponding values were 0.0, 0.04, 0.004, and 0.02, suggesting that this crop excludes these metals.”
t0“Flax”
Claim · model-written summary
Flax tissue metal uptake ranked Zn above Pb above Cd above Cu above Ni.
- Taxon
- FlaxLinum usitatissimumt0
- Outcome
- uptake in plant tissuese0
- Direction
- highere0
Not reportedValue
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“The order of the higher uptake in plant tissues was as follows: Zn > Pb > Cd > Cu > Ni.”
t0“Flax”
Claim · model-written summary
The authors concluded that flax tolerated soil heavy metals.
- Taxon
- flaxLinum usitatissimume0
- Outcome
- tolerance to heavy metals in the soile0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
e0“In conclusion, flax demonstrated tolerance to heavy metals in the soil, effectively supporting soil restoration through cultivation.”
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