Abstract
Indoor vertical farms can optimize light, temperature, humidity, and nutrient use, thus potentially maximizing crop growth and yield. However, the reported potential for enhanced crop growth and yield within these systems needs to be tempered against the understanding of the effects of this “forced growth”/optimal growth environment on “actual” plant performance to fully reap the benefits of these innovative vertical farming systems. We investigated the effect of calcium (Ca) on the production of strawberries in an indoor vertical farm system with varying photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). Fruit yield of plants fed with high Ca (9 meq·L −1 ) increased by 42.3% when the PPFD was 422 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 ; however, a subsequent increase to 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 resulted in a decline in fruit production. Plants treated with low Ca (5 meq·L −1 ) had a reduced yield and demonstrated no response to the PPFD. The observed increase in yield was associated with increased fruit production and total soluble solids. Plants exhibited 21.5% and 57.8% increases in the total dry weight when exposed to 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 , respectively; however, Ca did not have any impact on this response. Independent of the Ca concentration, the photosynthesis rate increased by 16.1% and 22.2% when the PPFD increased to 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 , respectively; however, the highest photosynthesis rate was recorded with 422 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 when the Ca level was 9 meq·L −1 . High Ca-fed plants exhibited a reduction in Ca (−17.1%) content in their fruits when exposed to 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 , which was likely caused by a dilution effect attributable to increased fruit biomass. In contrast, shoot Ca increased when plants were given high Ca when the PPFDs were 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 . The Ca concentration in shoots correlated with the increasing yield, and a higher Ca concentration was associated with the increasing transpiration rate and stomatic conductance. Shoot phosphorus declined when plants were exposed to increased PPFD, and phosphorus was lower when plants were provided with 9 meq·L −1 of Ca; however, plants watered with low Ca solutions had more potassium. The shoot nitrogen content and micronutrient contents were unchanged regardless of the variations in PPFD or Ca. In summary, the favorable conditions for the cultivation of strawberry under controlled environments resulted in greater growth and fruit yield as long as Ca was provided at higher concentrations in the irrigation solutions (from 5 to 9 meq·L −1 ). We suggest that the higher demand of Ca that is necessary to satisfy the enhanced plant development observed in indoor farming systems may be connected to the role of Ca in the formation of new tissues, cell walls, and cell membranes.
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Claims 20
Claim · model-written summary
High calcium with PPFD of 422 increased fruit yield 42.3%.
- Taxon
- Strawberry
_single2.jpg?width=60)
Fragaria ×ananassat0 - Treatment
- high Ca (9 meq·L −1 )e0
- Outcome
- Fruit yielde0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 42.3%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
_single2.jpg?width=500)
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“Fruit yield of plants fed with high Ca (9 meq·L −1 ) increased by 42.3% when the PPFD was 422 µmol·m −2 ·s −1”
Claim · model-written summary
Further increasing PPFD to 572 reduced fruit production.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- increase to 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1e0
- Outcome
- fruit productione0
- Direction
- declinee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“a subsequent increase to 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 resulted in a decline in fruit production”
Claim · model-written summary
Low calcium reduced yield.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- low Ca (5 meq·L −1 )e0
- Outcome
- yielde0
- Direction
- reducede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“Plants treated with low Ca (5 meq·L −1 ) had a reduced yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Low calcium plants did not respond to PPFD.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- low Ca (5 meq·L −1 )e0
- Outcome
- response to the PPFDe0
- Direction
- no responsee0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“Plants treated with low Ca (5 meq·L −1 ) had a reduced yield and demonstrated no response to the PPFD”
Claim · model-written summary
Yield increase was associated with fruit production and soluble solids.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Outcome
- yielde0
- Direction
- increasee0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“The observed increase in yield was associated with increased fruit production and total soluble solids.”
Claim · model-written summary
PPFD of 422 increased total dry weight by 21.5%.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1e0
- Outcome
- total dry weighte0
- Direction
- increasese0
- Value
- 21.5%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“Plants exhibited 21.5% and 57.8% increases in the total dry weight when exposed to 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 , respectively”
Claim · model-written summary
PPFD of 572 increased total dry weight by 57.8%.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1e0
- Outcome
- total dry weighte0
- Direction
- increasese0
- Value
- 57.8%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“Plants exhibited 21.5% and 57.8% increases in the total dry weight when exposed to 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 , respectively”
Claim · model-written summary
Calcium did not affect the dry-weight response.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- Cae0
- Outcome
- this responsee0
- Direction
- did not have any impacte0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“Ca did not have any impact on this response”
Claim · model-written summary
PPFD of 422 increased photosynthesis rate by 16.1%.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- PPFD increased to 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1e0
- Outcome
- photosynthesis ratee0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 16.1%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“the photosynthesis rate increased by 16.1% and 22.2% when the PPFD increased to 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 , respectively”
Claim · model-written summary
PPFD of 572 increased photosynthesis rate by 22.2%.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- PPFD increased to 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1e0
- Outcome
- photosynthesis ratee0
- Direction
- increasede0
- Value
- 22.2%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“the photosynthesis rate increased by 16.1% and 22.2% when the PPFD increased to 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 , respectively”
Claim · model-written summary
Highest photosynthesis occurred at PPFD 422 with 9 meq calcium.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- 422 µmol·m −2 ·s −1e0
- Outcome
- photosynthesis ratee0
- Direction
- higheste0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“the highest photosynthesis rate was recorded with 422 µmol·m −2 ·s −1 when the Ca level was 9 meq·L −1”
Claim · model-written summary
At PPFD 572, high-calcium plants had 17.1% lower fruit calcium.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1e0
- Outcome
- Ca (−17.1%) content in their fruitse0
- Direction
- reductione0
- Value
- −17.1%e0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“High Ca-fed plants exhibited a reduction in Ca (−17.1%) content in their fruits when exposed to 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1”
Claim · model-written summary
High calcium increased shoot calcium at both reported PPFD levels.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- high Cae0
- Outcome
- shoot Cae0
- Direction
- increasede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“shoot Ca increased when plants were given high Ca when the PPFDs were 422 and 572 µmol·m −2 ·s −1”
Claim · model-written summary
Shoot calcium concentration correlated with rising yield.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Outcome
- increasing yielde0
- Direction
- increasinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“The Ca concentration in shoots correlated with the increasing yield”
Claim · model-written summary
Higher shoot calcium was associated with transpiration and stomatal conductance.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Outcome
- increasing transpiration rate and stomatic conductancee0
- Direction
- increasinge0
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“a higher Ca concentration was associated with the increasing transpiration rate and stomatic conductance”
Claim · model-written summary
Increasing PPFD reduced shoot phosphorus.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- increased PPFDe0
- Outcome
- Shoot phosphoruse0
- Direction
- declinede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“Shoot phosphorus declined when plants were exposed to increased PPFD”
Claim · model-written summary
Higher calcium reduced phosphorus.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- 9 meq·L −1 of Cae0
- Outcome
- phosphoruse0
- Direction
- lowere0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“phosphorus was lower when plants were provided with 9 meq·L −1 of Ca”
Claim · model-written summary
Low calcium solutions increased potassium.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- low Ca solutionse0
- Outcome
- potassiume0
- Direction
- moree0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“plants watered with low Ca solutions had more potassium”
Claim · model-written summary
Shoot nitrogen content was unchanged across PPFD and calcium variation.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- variations in PPFD or Cae0
- Outcome
- shoot nitrogen contente0
- Direction
- unchangede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“The shoot nitrogen content and micronutrient contents were unchanged regardless of the variations in PPFD or Ca”
Claim · model-written summary
Micronutrient contents were unchanged across PPFD and calcium variation.
- Taxon
- StrawberryFragaria ×ananassat0
- Treatment
- variations in PPFD or Cae0
- Outcome
- micronutrient contentse0
- Direction
- unchangede0
Not reportedComparator
Organisms pictured · Representative pictures of the matched species, not figures from the paper.
Verbatim
t0“Strawberry”
e0“The shoot nitrogen content and micronutrient contents were unchanged regardless of the variations in PPFD or Ca”
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